Determinants of satiety: from innate drives to learned behaviours
Editorial
The current Western food environment is characterised by an increasing availability of energy-dense, highly palatable foods and larger portion sizes. These factors influence satiety and satiation, contributing to higher energy intakes and the development of obesity (Rolls, et al., 2025). Understanding how appetite and satiety are regulated is therefore key to improving health through dietary habits. Indeed, these processes result from complex interactions between both intrinsic and external factors (Garutti et al., 2025; Cunningham et al., 2023).
Children, for instance, display innate preferences for sweet tastes, an evolutionarily advantageous trait to motivate consumption of energy-containing foods (Mennella & Bobowski, 2015). Eating behaviours are then progressively shaped through eating experiences, socialisation and education (Birch & Fisher, 1996). The sensory and physical properties of foods – texture, volume, presentation, energy density, etc. – further influence eating behaviour and play a key role in satiety (Rolls, et al., 2025; Chambers et al., 2015) .
This issue explores the role of fruits and vegetables in satiety regulation, integrating evidence on top-down behavioural processes, food form and structure, and physiological responses to eating.
The first article is a narrative review by Bridget et al. 2026 highlighting the strong biologically driven food preferences of children. These preferences reflect bottom-up processes that do not naturally support healthy eating patterns. To adopt healthier behaviours, children must rely on top-down cognitive processes involving voluntary control over food-related impulses. Parental socialisation (rules, structure, encouragement, autonomy) plays a primary role in developing these abilities. The study calls for better understanding and measurement of these processes to improve obesity prevention in children.
The second article is an experimental study from Reigh et al. 2026, examining the impact of fruit form (apple slices, applesauce, or juice) on satiety in 64 children. Overall, the form of the apple did not significantly affect reported satiety. However, when boys consumed apple slices before a snack, they tended to better compensate for energy consumed from the apple at a subsequent snack. In contrast, girls consumed similar amounts at the snack regardless of prior intake. These results suggest a weaker effect on satiety in girls. These sex differences may reflect distinct underlying mechanisms. Boys appear to respond more to physiological signals of satiety, while girls seem more influenced by learned or social cues. This underlines that tailored interventions to account for sex differences may be needed to improve child appetite regulation.
In the last article, Mantzavinou et al. 2023 compared the effects of consuming equal amounts of apple and chocolate, as well as a larger portion of apple, on satiety-related sensations. The results show that hunger was influenced by the caloric content of the foods, while feelings of fullness were more strongly driven by food volume. Participants reported different bodily sensations depending on the food consumed, suggesting that satiety is shaped by both energy-related and distension-related signals. These findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between physiological mechanisms involved in appetite regulation. They also suggest that foods with lower energy density and higher volume, such as fruits and vegetables, may support satiety through complementary pathways.
Taken together, these articles highlight that fruits and vegetables support satiety through their structure. High in water and fiber and low in energy, they promote satiety through physiological, cognitive and sensory mechanisms. As such, they represent an essential lever to reach healthier eating patterns.
Barbara J. Rolls received her Ph.D. in Physiology from the University of Cambridge. After spending her early research career at the University of Oxford, Dr. Rolls became Professor of Psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1992, she joined The Pennsylvania State University, where she is Professor and Helen A. Guthrie Chair of Nutritional Sciences. Her studies have demonstrated how characteristics of foods such as variety, energy density, and portion size influence energy intake and weight management. She has authored seven books including three in the Volumetrics series. Dr. Rolls served as President of both the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior (SSIB) and The Obesity Society (TOS), and served on the Advisory Council of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. She has received career achievement awards from the American Society for Nutrition, SSIB, and TOS, and is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Paige M. Cunningham is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Nutritional Sciences at Cornell University. She received her B.S. in Psychology from Yale University , her Ph.D. in Nutritional Sciences from The Pennsylvania State University, and completed postdoctoral training in Food Science in The Penn State Sensory Evaluation Center. She is an expert in human eating behavior, and her research focuses on understanding how the physical, nutritional, and sensory properties of food influence appetite and energy intake. Her studies increase understanding of how we can leverage food and diet to benefit human health. Her work has been recognized by multiple awards from professional organizations including the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior and The Obesity Society.